COMP7801 Topic 1b Database Indexing

作者: pseudoyu | 2145 字, 11 分钟 | 评论 | 2021-01-30 | 分类: Develop

comp7801, database, hku

翻译: EN, DE

Database Indexing

Concepts

  • Indexing mechanisms used to speed up access to desired data
  • Search Key
    • An attribute or a set of attributes used to look up records in a file
  • An index file consists of records (called index entries) of the form search key - pointer
  • Index files are typically much smaller than the original file
  • Two basic kinds of indices
    • Ordered indices: search keys are stored in sorted order
    • Hash indices: search keys are distributed across “buckets” using a “hash function”

indexing_example

Good Index

  • Index quality is evaluated by several factors
    • Access types supported by the index efficiently
      • records with a specified value in the attribute (equality query)
      • or records with an attribute value falling in a specified range of values (range query)
    • Access time – query response time
    • Insertion time – data record insertion time
    • Deletion time – data record deletion time
    • Space overhead – size of the index file

Classification of Indexes

  • Primary index
    • In a sequentially ordered file, the index whose search key specifies the sequential order of the file
  • Secondary index
    • an index whose search key specifies an order different from the sequential order of the file
    • Also called non-clustered index

classification_of_indexing

  • Dense index
    • Index record appears for every search-key value in the file
  • Sparse Index
    • Contains index records for only some search-key values
    • Applicable when records are sequentially ordered on search-key
    • Less space and less maintenance overhead for insertions and deletions
    • Generally slower than dense index for locating records
    • Good tradeoff: sparse index with an index entry for every block in file, corresponding to least search-key value in the block

classification_of_indexing_2

Primary and Secondary Indices

  • Secondary indices have to be dense
  • Indices offer substantial benefits when searching for records
    • Index is much smaller than relation file (cheap scan)
    • Index can be ordered (fast search)
  • When a file is modified, every index on the file must be updated
    • Updating indices imposes overhead on database modification
    • Indexes should be used with care
  • Sequential scan using primary index is efficient, but a sequential scan using a secondary index is expensive
    • Each record access may fetch a new block from disk

Multilevel Index

  • If index does not fit in memory, access becomes expensive
  • To reduce number of disk accesses to index records, treat 1st level of index kept on disk as a sequential file and construct a sparse index on it
    • outer index – a sparse index on 1st-level index file
    • inner index – the 1st-level index file
  • If even outer index is too large to fit in main memory, yet another level of index can be created, and so on

multilevel_index_example

B+-Tree Index Files

  • A dynamic, multi-level index
  • Advantage
    • automatically reorganizes itself with small local changes, in the face of insertions and deletions
    • Reorganization of entire file is not required to maintain performance
  • Disadvantage of B+-trees
    • Extra insertion and deletion overhead, space overhead
  • Advantages of B+-trees outweigh disadvantages, and they are used extensively

Basic Properties

  • Disk-based tree structure
    • every node of the tree is a block and has an address (block-id) on the disk
  • Multiway tree
    • each node has multiple children (between n/2 and n, where n/2 is the order or degree of the tree)
    • Therefore, at least 50% of the space in a node is guaranteed to be occupied (this rule may not apply to tree root)
  • Balanced tree
    • all paths from the root to a leaf have the same length
    • guarantees good search performance (to be seen later)
  • Disjoint partition of attribute domain into ranges
    • each sub-tree indexes a range in the attribute domain
    • the entries of a directory node define the separators between domain intervals
    • leaf nodes store index entries and pointers to the relation file

B_Plus_Tree_Example

Non-Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees

  • Each non-leaf node contains up to n-1 search key values and up to n pointers
  • All non-leaf nodes (except root) contain at least n/2 pointers (n/2 is sometimes called the minimum fan-out or degree)
  • Non leaf nodes form a multi-level sparse index on the leaf nodes. For a non-leaf node with m pointers
    • All the search-keys in the subtree to which P1 points are less than K1
    • For 2 <= i <= n – 1, all the search-keys in the subtree to which Pi points have values greater than or equal to Ki–1 and smaller than Km–1

B_Plus_Tree_Non_Leaf_Node

Leaf Node in a B+-Tree

  • Contains between (n-1)/2 and n-1 entries
  • Each index entry is a search key value + a record-id
  • If Li, Lj are leaf nodes and i < j, Li’s search-key values are all smaller than Lj’s search-key values
  • Each leaf node is linked with a pointer to the next node

Observations

  • Since the inter-node connections are done by pointers, “logically” close blocks need not be “physically” close
    • Nodes of the tree are dynamically created/deleted, so we cannot guarantee physical closeness
  • The non-leaf levels of the B+-tree form a hierarchy of sparse indices
  • The B+-tree contains a relatively small number of levels (logarithmic in the size of the main file), thus searches can be conducted efficiently
  • Insertions and deletions to the main file can be handled efficiently (in logarithmic time)

Queries

  • Find all records with a search-key value of k

    • Start with the root node
      • Examine the node for the smallest search-key value > k
      • If such a value exists, assume it is Ki. Then follow Pi to the child node. (E.g. P2 is for keys in K1 <= Keys < K2 )
      • Otherwise k >= Kn–1, where there are n pointers in the node. Then follow Pn to the child node
    • If the node reached by following the pointer above is not a leaf node, repeat the above procedure on the node, and follow the corresponding pointer
    • Eventually reach a leaf node. If for some i, key Ki = k follow pointer Pi to the desired record. Else no record with search-key value k exists
  • In processing a query, a path is traversed in the tree from the root to some leaf node

  • If there are K search-key values in the file, the path is not longer than log(n/2)(K). (The degree of a node is no less than n/2)

  • A node has generally the same size of a disk block, typically 4 kilobytes, and n is typically around 100 (40 bytes per index entry)

  • With 1 million search key values and n/2 = 50, at most log50(1,000,000) = 4 nodes are accessed in a lookup

  • Contrast this with a balanced binary tree with 1 million search key values — around 20 nodes are accessed in a lookup

    • (log2(1,000,000) ~= 20)
    • above difference is significant since every node access may need a disk I/O, costing around 10 milliseconds!
  • Similar result for a binary search of an ordered sequential file

Range Queries

  • Find all records with a search-key value between k and m (k<m)
    • Start with the root node
      • Examine the node for the smallest search-key value > k
      • If such a value exists, assume it is Kj
        • Then follow Pi to the child node
      • Otherwise k >= Kn–1, where there are n pointers in the node
        • Then follow Pn to the child node.
    • If the node reached by following the pointer above is not a leaf node, repeat the above procedure on the node, and follow the corresponding pointer
    • Eventually reach a leaf node. If for some i, k <= Ki <= m follow pointer Pi to the desired record. Continue with next entry Ki+1, while Ki+1 <= m. If at end of leaf node follow pointer to next node, until Ki >m or end of index

B_Plus_Tree_Range_Query

Insertion

  • Find the leaf node in which the search-key value to be inserted would appear
  • If the search-key value is already there in the leaf node, record is added to file and if necessary one more pointer is associated with the search key value
  • If the search-key value is not there, then add the record to the main file. Then
    • If there is room in the leaf node, insert (key-value, pointer) pair in the leaf node
    • Otherwise, split the node (along with the new (key-value, pointer) entry) as discussed in the next slides

B_Plus_Tree_Insertion

Splitting

  • Splitting a node
    • take the (search-key value, pointer) pairs (including the one being inserted) in sorted order. Place the first n/2 in the original node, and the rest in a new node
    • let the new node be p, and let k be the least key value in p. Insert (k,p) in the parent of the node being split. If the parent is full, split it and propagate the split further up
  • The splitting of nodes proceeds upwards till a node that is not full is found. In the worst case the root node may be split increasing the height of the tree by 1
  • Non-leaf node splitting
    • Overflown node has n+1 pointers and n values
    • Leave first n/2 key values and n/2+1 pointers to original node
    • Move last n/2 key values and n/2+1 pointers to new node
    • insert (middle key value, pointer to new node) to parent node

B_Plus_Tree_splitting

Deletion

  • Find the record to be deleted, and remove it from the relation file
  • Remove (search-key value, record-id) of deleted record from the leaf node of the B+-tree
  • If the node has too few entries due to the removal, and the entries in the node and a sibling fit into a single node, then
    • Insert all the search-key values in the two nodes into a single node (the one on the left), and delete the other node. (Deletion triggers a merge)
    • Delete the pair (Ki–1, Pi), where Pi is the pointer to the deleted node, from its parent, recursively using the above procedure
  • Otherwise, if the node has too few entries due to the removal, and the entries in the node and a sibling does not fit into a single node, then
    • Redistribute the pointers between the node and a sibling such that both have more than the minimum number of entries. (Deletion and rebalancing)
    • Update the corresponding search-key value in the parent of the node
  • The node deletions may cascade upwards until a node which has n/2 or more pointers is found. If the root node has only one pointer after deletion, it is deleted and the sole child becomes the root

B_Plus_Tree_deletion

Static Hashing

  • A bucket is a unit of storage containing one or more records (a bucket is typically a disk block)
  • In a hash file organization we obtain the bucket of a record directly from its search-key value using a hash function
  • Hash function h is a function from the set of all search-key values K to the set of all bucket addresses B
  • Hash function is used to locate records for access, insertion as well as deletion
  • Records with different search-key values may be mapped to the same bucket; thus entire bucket has to be searched sequentially to locate a record. (Collision)

indexing_hashing

Hash Function

  • Worst case has function maps all search-key values to the same bucket; this makes access time proportional to the number of search-key values in the file
  • An ideal hash function is uniform, i.e., each bucket is assigned the same number of search-key values from the set of all possible values
  • Ideal hash function is random, so each bucket will have the same number of records assigned to it irrespective of the actual distribution of search-key values in the file
  • Typical hash functions perform computation on the internal binary representation of the search-key
    • For example, for a string search-key, the binary representations of all the characters in the string could be added and the sum modulo the number of buckets could be returned

Handling of Bucket Overflows

  • Bucket overflow can occur because of
    • Insufficient buckets
    • Skew in distribution of records. This can occur due to two reasons
      • multiple records have same search-key value
      • chosen hash function produces non-uniform distribution of key values
  • Although the probability of bucket overflow can be reduced, it cannot be eliminated; it is handled by using overflow buckets
  • Overflow chaining / closed hashing – the overflow buckets of a given bucket are chained together in a linked list

Hash Indices

  • Hashing can be used not only for file organization, but also for index-structure creation
  • A hash index organizes the search keys, with their associated record pointers, into a hash file structure

Hash_Index

Deficiencies of Static Hashing

  • In static hashing, function h maps search-key values to a fixed set of B of bucket addresses
    • Databases grow with time. If initial number of buckets is too small, performance will degrade due to too much overflows
    • If file size at some point in the future is anticipated and number of buckets allocated accordingly, significant amount of space will be wasted initially
    • If database shrinks, again space will be wasted
    • One option is periodic re-organization of the file with a new hash function, but it is very expensive.
  • These problems can be avoided by using techniques that allow the number of buckets to be modified dynamically (dynamic hashing)

相关文章

2021-03-06
COMP7801 Topic 4 Top-k
2021-02-27
COMP7801 Topic 3 Spatial Networks
2021-02-06
COMP7801 Topic 2 Spatial Data Management
2021-01-23
COMP7801 Topic 1a Relational Database
pseudoyu

作者

pseudoyu

后端 & 智能合约研发工程师,HKU ECICer。喜欢探索新技术,空闲时也折腾博客搭建、效率工具等。 在 GitHub 关注我。在我的 Telegram 频道了解更多。


Comments